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Culture, Knowledge, and Assessment in Active Learning 19

approach (Chaumklang, 2013). Teachers find lecture-based approach more efficient in covering
the content required by the national curriculum (Chaumklang, 2013). In terms of assessment,

teachers still use teacher designed examinations as their final assessment (Chaumklang, 2013). In
the field of Foreign Language studies, Todd (2019) conducted a large-scale survey on teachers’
form of assessment of foreign languages. He discovered that 64 percent of the assessment
of a single subject is in forms of traditional paper-based exams and quizzes. Literacy-based
assessment in classroom level is greatly influenced by the requirements national, university,
and professional levels.
In national level, licensure examinations and national examinations can also affect teaching

and learning practices. National examinations in Thailand starts in basic education. An example
is the Ordinary National Educational Test (O-NET) – an annual assessment that aims to evaluate
learners’ academic proficiency in subjects such as Thai language, Mathematics, Science, Foreign
Languages, and Social studies. It is taken by grades 6, 9 and 12. Imsa-ard (2020) conducted a
study on the teachers’ attitude on the O-NET. The data shows that the teachers experience
negative washback. They tend to focus on teaching the contents of the exam rather than focussing
on their competencies. The teachers are aware that the O-NET has impacted their practices
transforming them into memorisation-based or rote learning. Additionally, they are pressured by
the school administrators as the O-NET serves as a gatekeeper of school’s reputation. According

to Anunthavorasakul in an interview with Bangkok post in January 2021, “O-NET does not test
students’ use of knowledge and critical ability” (par. 5). He continues:

Students who wish to do well in the multiple-choice O-Net exams need [only]
to remember facts and formulas. There is no incentive for students to develop
research skills, writing skills or critical thinking skills because the O-Net isn't going
to be testing them.

(Bangkok Post, 2021, par.6)

High stakes exams extend after basic education. Thai students need to take university
entrance examinations to secure a position in the university and their desired programs. University
examinations are a part of the requirements for tertiary admissions in addition to secondary
level academic performance, and interview and physical examination (Prapphal, 2004). The
national government eyes on the idea of putting more weight to the secondary level academic
performance rather than university entrance exams in order for students to focus on their classes
rather than cram schools (Prapphal, 2008). However, little confidence in secondary schools’

standards of marking consequently results to negative washback on the teaching and learning
practices (Prapphal, 2008).
After university, graduates of some programs need to take board exams or licensure
examinations. These high-stake assessments determine students’ success in their profession
which can be a concern in the use of active learning. Walling et al. (2017) conducted a study